Washoe Learned American Sign Language

    1　An animal that influenced scientific thought has died. A chimpanzee named Washoe and born in Africa died of natural causes late last month at the age of 42 at a research center in the American state of Washington. Washoe had become known in the scientific community¹ and around the world for her ability to use American Sign Language². She was said to be the first non-human to lean a human language. Her skills also led to debate³ about primates and their ability to understand language.

    2　Research scientists Allen and Beatrix Gardner began teaching Washoe sign language in 1966. In 1969, the Gardners described Washoe’s progress in a scientific report. The people who experimented with Washoe said she grew to understand4 about 250 words⁴. For example, Washoe made signs to communicate when it was time to eat. She could request foods like apples and bananas. She also asked questions like, “Who is coming to play?” Once⁵ the news about Washoe spread, many language scientists began studies of their own⁶ into this new and exciting area of research. The whole direction of primate research changed.

    3　However, critics argued Washoe only learned to repeat sign language movements from watching her teachers. They said she had never developed true language skills. Even now, there are some researchers who suggest that primates learn sign language only by memory, and perform the signs only for prizes. Yet Washoe’s keepers disagree. Roger Fouts is a former student of the Gardners⁷. He took Washoe to a research center inEllensburg,Washington. There, Washoe taught sign language to three younger chimpanzees, which are still alive.

    4　Scientists like private researcher Jane Goodall believe⁸ Washoe provided new information about the mental workings of chimpanzees. Today, there are not as many scientists studying language skills with chimps. Part of the reason is that this kind of research takes a very long time.

    5　Debate continues about chimps’ understanding of human communication. Yet, one thing is sure — Washoe changed popular ideas about the possibilities of animal intelligence.

 

词汇：

chimpanzee /,tʃɪmpæn’zi:/ n．黑猩猩

community / kə’mju:nɪtɪ/ n．社区，圈子

primate / ’praɪmeɪt / n．灵长类动物

critic / ’krɪtɪk / n．评论家，批评家

workingsn．活动，运行

chimp /tʃɪmp/ n．= chimpanzee 黑猩猩

 

注释：

1．in the scientific community：在科学界，在科学家的圈子里

2．American Sign Language（ASL）：美国手语。利用手、脸部表情、身诔姿势表达思想的美国聋哑人语言。在加拿大、墨西哥等地也使用ASL。ASL与British Sign Language（BSL英国手语）不同，两者不能相互理解。

3．led to debate：引起辩论。lead to意为“导致”，to为介词，debate为名词。

4．she grew to understand about 250 words：她渐渐掌握约250个单词。grow to是“渐渐”的意思。

5．Once：—旦。Once是连接词。例：Children like to cycle once they have learned how.小孩一旦学会了如何骑自行车，就会喜欢上它。

6．of their own：属于自己的。of their own的含义与on their own不同，on their own是“独自”的意思。

7．the Gardners：Gardner夫妇

8．Scientists like private researcher Jane Goodall believe ... ：像个体研究者Jane Goodall这样的科学家相信…like（像，跟……一样）是介词，本句的谓语是believe。句子中的private researcher意为“不受雇于任何单位，自己独立工作的科研人员。”

A if the Gardeners’ argument was sound

B because she was cleverer than other chimps

C when she wanted to eat

D while she was at a research center in Ellensburg

E because she could use sign language to ask for fruits

F while Washoe was learning sign language

Washoe taught three younger chimps sign language _____.

A:A B:B C:C D:D E:E F:F

Intelligence: a Changed View

    1.Intelligence was believed to be a fixed entity, some faculty of the mind that we all possess and which determines in some way the extent of our achievements. Its value therefore, was as a predictor of children"s future learning. If they differed markedly in their ability to learn complex tasks, then it was clearly necessary to educate them differently and the need for different types of school and even different ability groups within school was obvious. Intelligence tests could be used for streaming children according to ability at an early age; and at 11 these tests were superior to measures of attainment for selecting children for different types of secondary education.

    2.Today, we are beginning to think differently. In the last few years, research has thrown doubt on the view that innate intelligence can ever be measured and on the very nature of intelligence itself¹. There is considerable evidence now which shows the great influence of environment both on achievement and intelligence. Children with poor home backgrounds not only do less well in their school work and intelligence tests but their performance tends to deteriorate gradually compared with that of their more fortunate classmates.

    3.There are evidences that support the view that we have to distinguish between genetic intelligence and observed intelligence.²  Any deficiency in the appropriate genes will restrict development no matter how stimulating the environment. We cannot observe and measure innate intelligence, whereas we can observe and measure the effects of the interaction of whatever is inherited with whatever stimulation has been received from the environment.³ Researches have been investigating what happens in this interaction.

    4.Two major findings have emerged from these researches. Firstly, the greater part of the development of observed intelligence occurs in the earliest years of life. It is estimated that 50 per cent of measurable intelligence at age 17 is already predictable by the age of four. Secondly, the most important factors in the environment are language and psychological aspects of the parent-child relationship. Much of the difference in measured intelligence between "privileged" and "disadvantaged" children⁴ may be due to the latter"s lack of appropriate verbal stimulation and the poverty of their perceptual experiences.⁵

    5.These research findings have led to a revision in our understanding of the nature of intelligence. Instead of it being some largely inherited fixed power of the mind, we now see it as a set of developed skills with which a person copes with any environment. These skills have to be learned and, indeed, one of them is learning how to learn.

    6.The modern ideas concerning the nature of intelligence are bound to have some effect on our school system. In one respect a change is already occurring. With the move toward comprehensive education and the development of unstrained classes⁶, fewer children will be given the label "low IQ⁷"" which must inevitably condemn a child in his own, if not society"s eyes.⁸ The idea that we can teach children to be intelligent in the same way that we can teach them reading or arithmetic is accepted by more and more people.

 

词汇：

entity /"entiti/ n．存在，实体

innate /i"neit/ adj．内在的

stream /stri:m/v．（根据能力把学生）分组

interaction /,intər"ækʃ(ə)n/ n．相互作用

stimulation / stimju"leiʃ(ə)n/ n．激发，促进

 

注释：

1.…research has thrown doubt on the view that innate inteffigence can ever be measured and on the very nature of intelligence itself. ……科学研究对内在智力可以衡量这一观点以及智力的实质本身都表示怀疑。

2.... distinguish between genetic intelligence and observed intelligence．区别基因智力和习得智力。

3.…the interaction of whatever is inherited with whatever stimulation has been received from the environment. ……遗传所得和从环境所得到的激发两者之间的相互作用。这里的两个whatever都相当于what，都引导了名词性从句，分别作介词of和with的宾语。

4."privileged" and "disadvantaged" children:“有优势的”和“没有优势的”孩子。privileged原来的解释是“有特权的”,disadvantaged是“不利的”，实际上它们分别用于指家境富裕的和家境贫困的，尤其是黑人家庭的孩子。

5.…lack of appropriate verbal stimulation and the"poverty of their perceptual experiences. ……缺乏必要的语言刺激以及感性经历贫乏。

6.comprehensive education and the development of unstreamed classes：综合教育以及混合编班的做法。comprehensive education指具有不同能力的学生同在一校的综合的教育制度，和后面的development of unstreamed classes是一脉相承的。

7.IQ：智商。IQ是Intelligence Quotient的首字母缩写。

8.... condemn a child in his own, if not society"s eyes．哪怕社会不把孩子看扁，他自己也把自己看扁了。condemn这个动词是“谴责，判定・一不合适、不足”的意思；in one"s eyes是“在……的眼里”。A born to be more intelligent or less intelligent

B have a better chance to develop his intelligence

C taught to be more intelligent

D that intelligence was something a baby was born with

E and because of the lack of communication with his classmates

F and partly has to do with a child"s living environment

Children were not just_________, but they can be taught to be more intelligent at school.

A:A B:B C:C D:D E:E F:F

Text 3
Education is compulsory in Britain, whether at school "or otherwise"; and "other wise" is becoming more popular. In 1999, only 12,000 children were listed as being home-schooled. Now that figure is 20,000, according to Mike Fortune-Wood, an educational researcher. But he thinks that, as most home-taught children never go near a school and are therefore invisible to officialdom, the total is probably nearer 50,000.
As usual, Britain lies between Europe and America. In Germany, home teaching is illegal. In America, it’ s huge: over 1 m children are home-schooled, mainly by religious parents. There are a small minority among British home-educators, who consist mainly of two types: hippyish middle-class parents who dislike schools on principle, and those whose children are unhappy at school.
The growth is overwhelmingly in this second category, says Roland Meighan, a home-education expert and publisher. One reason is that technology has made home-education easier. The internet allows parents to know as much as teachers. It is also a way of organizing get-togethers, sharing tips and outwitting official hassles. That supplements e vents such as the annual home-education festival last week, where 1,600 parents and children enjoyed Egyptian dancing and labyrinth-building on a muddy hillside in Devon.
But a bigger reason for the growth is changing attitudes. Centralisation, government targets and a focus on exams have made state schools less customer friendly and more boring. Classes are still based strictly on age groups, which is hard for children who differ sharply from the average. Mr Fortune-Wood notes that the National Health Service is now far more accommodating of patients’ wishes about timing, venue and treatment. "It’ s happened in health. Why can’t it happen in education" he asks.
Perhaps because other businesses tend to make more effort to satisfy individual needs, parents are getting increasingly picky. In the past, if their child was bullied, not coping or bored, they tended to put up with it. Now they complain, and if that doesn’ t work they vote with their ( children’ s) feet. Some educationalists worry that home-schooling may hurt children’ s psychological and educational development. Home educators cite statistics showing that it helps both educational attainment and the course of grown-up life.
Labour’ s latest big idea in education is "personalisation", which is intended to al low much more flexible timing and choice of subjects. In theory, that might stem the drift to home--schooling. Many home-educators would like to be able to use school facilities occasionally--in science lessons, say, or to sit exams. But for now, schools, and the of ficials who regulate them, like the near-monopoly created by the rule of "all or nothing".

The third statistics as pointed out in the opening paragraph, in view of Mr Fortune Wood, is（）

A:the actual number of home-taught kids. B:the total of the listed at present. C:the additional sum of the unlisted home taught children. D:the total number of school taught children.

(A great many) teachers (firmly) believe that English is one of the (poorest-taught) subjects in high schools (at present).

A:A great many B:firmly C:poorest-taught D:at present

John James Audubon was born in 1785 and died in 1851, but his name is still spoken every day. Andubon was a scientist who loved nature. He wanted to show people the importance of nature in their lives. He was especially interested in birds, and painted many pictures of them.
In 1905, the National Audubon Society was formed by people who were also interested in birds and wanted to continue Audubon’s nature studies. Even now, when people think of the Audubon Society, they usually think of birds. But the society does other things besides watching birds.
The members of the Society try to improve the environment as much as they can. They have helped pass many laws that protect birds and animals, and people, too. They taught young people how to protect their environment. They try to make their own communities cleaner, better places to live in.
John James Audubon knew that nature was important. He did not know how important his work would become.

How did the members of the Society try to improve the environment（　）

A:They made laws that protect birds. B:They taught young people, helped pass laws that protect animals and so on. C:They tried to make the world better. D:Both B and

John James Audubon was born in 1785 and died in 1851, but his name is still spoken every day. Andubon was a scientist who loved nature. He wanted to show people the importance of nature in their lives. He was especially interested in birds, and painted many pictures of them.
In 1905, the National Audubon Society was formed by people who were also interested in birds and wanted to continue Audubon’s nature studies. Even now, when people think of the Audubon Society, they usually think of birds. But the society does other things besides watching birds.
The members of the Society try to improve the environment as much as they can. They have helped pass many laws that protect birds and animals, and people, too. They taught young people how to protect their environment. They try to make their own communities cleaner, better places to live in.
John James Audubon knew that nature was important. He did not know how important his work would become.
How did the members of the Society try to improve the environment

A:They made laws that protect birds. B:They taught young people, helped pass laws that protect animals and so on. C:They tried to make the world better. D:Both B and

Who is easier to be taught to the teacher

A:highly-motivated student with a long-term goal. B:de-motivated student. C:student who has to study because of the curriculum. D:student with the urge to pass the exam.

In 18th- century colonial America, those who wanted to become physicians either learned as personal students from established professionals or went abroad to study in the traditional schools of London, Paris, and Edinburgh. Medicine was first taught formally by specialists at the University of Pennsylvania, beginning in 1765, and in 1767 at King’s College (now Columbia University), the first institution in the colonies to give the degree of doctor of medicine. Following the American Revolution, the Columbia medical faculty (formerly of King’s College ) was combined with the College of Physicians and Surgeons ,chartered in 1809 ,which survives as a division of Columbia University.
In 1893 the Johns Hopkins Medical School required all applicants to have a college degree and was the first to afford its students the opportunity to further their training in an attached teaching hospital. The growth of medical schools attached with established institutions of learning went together with the development of proprietary schools of medicine(私人医学院)run for personal profit, most of which had low standards and poor facilities. In 1910 Abraham Flexner, the American education reformer, wrote Medical Education in the United States and Canada, exposing the poor conditions of most proprietary schools. Subsequently, the American Medical Association and the Association of American Medical Colleges laid down standards for course content, qualifications of teachers, laboratory facilities, connection with teaching hospitals, and licensing of medical professionals that survive to this day.
By the late 1980s the U. S. and Canada had 142 4 - year medical colleges recognized by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education to offer the M. D. degree; during the 1987 - 1988 academic year,47,262 men and 25,686 women entered these colleges and an estimated 11,752 men and 5, 958 women were graduated. Graduates, after a year of internship, receive licenses to practice if they pass an examination given either by a state board or by the National Board of Medical Examiners.
In 18th -century America ______.

A:there was no higher institution of learning which taught medicine. B:there were already a few higher institutions of learning which taught medicine. C:those higher institutions of learning which taught medicine were better than those in Europe. D:those higher institutions of learning did not give the degree of doctor of medicin