相差显微镜（phase—contrast microscope）

反差（contrast）

phase-contrast microscope（相差显微镜）

In contrast to Britain, France is funding their medical care

A:more extravagantly. B:more cautiously. C:more consistently. D:more reasonably.

The author draws a sharp contrast between the housing market and the rest of the economy so as to show

A:the boom of real estate activity. B:the statistics on home prices. C:the role of housing market. D:the degree of consumer spirits.

Compare and contrast the following pairs of terms. Use examples if necessary.
(1)Language learning and language acquisition
(2)Field dependence and field independence
(3)Contrastive analysis and error analysis

(A)Language learning is sometimes contrasted with language learning on the assumption that these are different processes. The term "acquisition" is used to refer to picking up a language through exposure, whereas the term "learning" is used to refer to the conscious study of a language. In other words, "language acquisition" refers to the subconscious processes by which a language is learnt in a natural setting while "language learning" refers to the conscious processes by which a language is learnt in a tutored setting.
In the field of second language study, however, the term "second language acquisition" is a cover term to refer to both the subconscious or conscious processes by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural or a tutored setting.
(B)An area where individuals show differences in their abilities to discriminate events or visual, auditory, or tactile cues from their surrounding environments is known as field-dependence/field- independence. Herman Witkin conducted much of the original research in this area in the AIE0s. A field- dependent person has difficulty finding a geometric shape that is embedded or "hidden" in a background with similar (but not identical) lines and shapes. A person who is field-independent can readily identify the geometric shape, regardless of the background in which it is set. This manner of interpretation, however, is not limited to visual cues.
People who are field-dependent are frequently described as being very interpersonal and having a well-developed ability to read social cues and to openly convey their own feelings. By contrast, individuals who are field-independent use an "internal" frame of reference and can easily impose their own sense of order in a situation that is lacking structure. They are also observed to function autonomously in social settings. They are sometimes described as impersonal and task-oriented. These people, however, do have the ability to discern their own identity of self from the field.
(C)contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language situation. The goal of contrastive analysis is to predict what areas will be easy to learn and what areas will be difficult to learn.
The fact that not all errors are explicable by contrastive analysis resulted in a disillusionment with contrastive analysis. Gradually contrastive analysis was replaced by the error analysis movement, a major claim of which is that many errors made by LB learners were caused by factors other than LA interference. Corder claimed that errors are not just to be seen as something to be eradiated, but rather can be important in and of themselves. Errors often arise from the learner’s lack of knowledge, it represents a lack of competence. For example, the learner utilizes some LA features rather than that of the target language itself, such as overgeneralization, which arises when the learner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does not apply.

Compare and contrast the following terms in linguistics: turn-taking and adjacency pairs.

In conversation, the roles of speaker and listener change constantly. The person who speaks first becomes a listener as soon as the person addressed takes his or her turn in the conversation by beginning to speak. Conversations need to be organized; therefore, there are rules or principles for establishing who talks and then who talks next. This process is called turn taking.
The study of turn taking includes
· turn constructional component
· turn allocational component or turn taking rules
· implicit and explicit markers.
Sacks suggested some guiding principles for the organization of turn taking in conversation. He observed that the central principle that speakers follow in taking turns is to avoid gaps and overlap in conversation.
An adjacency pair is a unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers. The turns are functionally related to each other in such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn. For examples, a greeting-greeting pair, and a question- answer pair.
Turn-taking and adjacency pairs are both integral parts of all conversations. According to Levinson (AIHC, C0H), turu taking and adjacency pairs are both aspects of local organization: their influence is limited to short exchanges. They do not explain the apparent organization operating over longer stretches of conversation.

Compare and contrast the following pairs of terms. Use exainples if necessary.
(1)norm-referenced test and criterion-referenced test
(2)macro planning and micro planning

(A) When we ask how the student performed on the test, we may be given two kinds of answer. An answer of the first kind would be that the student obtained a score that placed her or him in the top ten percent of candidates who have taken the test, or in the bottom five percent; or that she or he did better than sixty percent of those who took it. A test which is designed to give this kind of information is said to be norm-referenced. It relates one candidate’s performance to that of other candidates. We are not told directly what the student is capable of doing in the language.
In some other cases we learn nothing about how the individual’s performance compares with that of other candidates. Rather we learn something about what he or she can actually do in the language. Tests which are designed to provide this kind of information directly are said to be criterion-referenced. The purpose of criterion-referenced tests is to classify people according to whether or not they are able to perform some task or set of tasks satisfactorily.
The two types of tests are used for different purposes but they both serve the purpose of teaching.
(B) Macro planning: A planning over a longer period of time, for instance, planning for a whole program or a whole-year course. This is often done by a group of teachers who are to teach the same course. Micro planning: A planning for a specific unit or a lesson (for one or two weeks; forty or fifty minutes) made by individual teacher. There is no clear-cut between these two types of planning. They are best viewed as a planning continuum with different levels of planning in between. In fact, micro planning should be based on macro planning, and macro planning is apt to be modified as lessons go on.

The article opens and closes with descriptions of two news reports, each ____________one major point in contrast with the other.

A:makes B:made C:is to make D:making

In contrast to the U.S. ,Japan and Sweden are funding their medical care ______.

A:more flexibly B:more extravagantly C:more cautiously D:more reasonably