Brands

    The word brand is a comprehensive term that encompasses other narrower terms. A brand is a name, term, symbol, and/or special design that is intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers. A brand differentiates ¹ one seller’s products from those of competitors. A brand name consists of words, letters, and/or numbers that can be vocalized. A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of ² a symbol, design, or distinctive coloring or lettering. It is recognized by sight but may not be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.

    A trademark is a brand that is given legal protection because, under the law, it has been appropriated by one seller ³. Thus trademark is essentially a legal term. All trademarks are brands and thus include the words, letters, or numbers that can be pronounced. They may also include a pictorial design ⁴. Some people erroneously believe ⁵that the trademark is only the pictorial part of the brand.

    One major method of classifying brands is on the basis of who owns them—producers or middlemen. Sunbeam, Florsheim, Spalding (athletic products), and Sara Lee are producers’ brands, while Allstate, Shurfine, Sysco, Craftsman, and Penncrest are middlemen"s brands.

    The terms national and private have been used to describe producer and middleman brand ownership, respectively. However, marketing people prefer the producer middleman terminology. To say that the brand of poultry feed marketed in three states by a small Birmingham,Alabama, manufacturer is a national brand, whereas the brands of Penney’s or Sears are private brands, stretches the meaning of the terms ⁶ national and private.

词汇：

encompass /in"kʌmpəs/ vt．包含，包括；围绕

differentiate /difə"renʃieit/vt．&vi．区分，区别

distinctive /dis"tiŋktiv/ adj．区别性的；有特色的，与众不同的

vocalize /"vəukəlaiz/ vt．&vi．说，清楚地发音；唱，练唱

letter/"letə/vt．用印刷字母写；vi．写印刷体字

trademark /"treidma:k/ n．商标

middleman /"midlmæn/ n．经纪人，中间商，中间人

terminology /"tə: minɔlədʒi/ n．术语，专门名词

注释：

1.    differentiate ... from...：把……与……区别开来。又如，differentiate tangible assets from intangible ones：区分有形资产和无形资产。differentiate后也可用between。如differentiate between right and wrong：分清是非。

2.    appears in the form of…：以……形式出现

3.    ... under the law, it has been appropriated by one seller．依据法律，它已被卖者占有了。appropriate是“私占，挪用”的意思。又如：He appropriated public funds for his own private use．他将公款挪为己用。

4.    They may also include a pictorial design．商标上也可能有图案设计。

5.    Some people erroneously believe...：有些人错误地认为……

6.    ... stretches the meaning of the terms…：……把这些术语的意思引申了……

Penncrest is a national brand.

A:Right B:Wrong C:Not mentioned

A Dog’s Dilemma

    Finding a babysitter while you go out to work is, for example, an inconvenience. For the African wild dog, one of the continents’s most endangered carnivores, it’s a matter of life and death. New research shows that once packs fall below a certain size, they are not enough animals to both hunt food and stay at home protecting the young.

    The African wild dog has declined drastically over the past century. Habitual loss, persecution and unexplained outbreaks of disease have all been blamed. Only 3,000 to 5,000 animals remain, and the species is expected to go extinct within decades if the trend continues.

    Other large carnivores such as the spotted hyena face similar pressures, yet are not declining. Now Franck Courchamp of CambridgeUniversityhas found a reason why. The dog’s weakness lies in its social organization.

    Within each pack of up to 20 adults and pups, only he dominant male and female bread. The remaining animals help raise the pups, cooperating to hunt prey and defend the kill from other carnivores.

    Because pups can’t keep up on a hunt, large packs leave an adult behind to protect them from predators, which include lions and hyenas. But leaving a babysitter also carries costs. A smaller hunting party is less able to tackle large prey and to defend the kill ¹. There is also one less stomach in which to carry food back to the den, and one more mouth to feed when they get there.

    Courchamp investigated this awkward trade-off by modeling how the costs of a babysitter change with decreasing pack size. This showed that packs of more than five adults should be able to feed all the pups and still spare a babysitter. But with smaller packs, either the hunting or the babysitting suffers, or the animals have to compensate by increasing he number of hunting excursions—which itself carries a cost to the pack.

    Field observations inZimbabwesupported the model. Packs of five animals or fewer left pups unguarded more frequently than larger packs did. There was also evidence that when they did leave a babysitter, they were forced to hunt more often.

    A pack which drops below a critical size becomes caught in a vicious circle, says Courchamp ², who is now atParis-SudUniversity. “Poor reproduction and low survival further reduces pack size, culminating in failure of the whole pack.” And deaths caused by human activity, says Courchamp, may be what reduces pack numbers to below the sustainable threshold. Mammal ecologist Chris Carbone atLondon’sInstituteofZoologyagrees. Maintaining the integrity of wild dog packs will be vital in preserving the species, he says.

词汇

carnivore /"ka: nivɔ:(r)/ n．食肉动物

pup /pʌp/ n．小狗

predator/"predətə(r)/n．捕食者

integrity /in"tegrəti/ n．完整

hyena /hai"inə/ n．鬣狗

prey /prei/ n．被捕食的动物

culminate /"kʌlmineit/ n．告终；达到顶点

Zimbabwe /zim"ba: bwei/ n．津巴布韦

注释：

1.A smaller hunting party is less able to tackle large prey and to defend the kill.：一个较小的捕猎群体不太容易捕捉大动物，也不太容易保卫猎获物。
2. A pack which drops below a critical size becomes caught in a vicious circle, says Courchamp：Courchamp说，“一个群体的规模降到警戒线以下时就会陷入恶性循环。”

There is a tension between babysitting and hunting.

A:Right B:Wrong C:Not mentioned

A Dog’s Dilemma

    Finding a babysitter while you go out to work is, for example, an inconvenience. For the African wild dog, one of the continents’s most endangered carnivores, it’s a matter of life and death. New research shows that once packs fall below a certain size, they are not enough animals to both hunt food and stay at home protecting the young.

    The African wild dog has declined drastically over the past century. Habitual loss, persecution and unexplained outbreaks of disease have all been blamed. Only 3,000 to 5,000 animals remain, and the species is expected to go extinct within decades if the trend continues.

    Other large carnivores such as the spotted hyena face similar pressures, yet are not declining. Now Franck Courchamp of CambridgeUniversityhas found a reason why. The dog’s weakness lies in its social organization.

    Within each pack of up to 20 adults and pups, only he dominant male and female bread. The remaining animals help raise the pups, cooperating to hunt prey and defend the kill from other carnivores.

    Because pups can’t keep up on a hunt, large packs leave an adult behind to protect them from predators, which include lions and hyenas. But leaving a babysitter also carries costs. A smaller hunting party is less able to tackle large prey and to defend the kill ¹. There is also one less stomach in which to carry food back to the den, and one more mouth to feed when they get there.

    Courchamp investigated this awkward trade-off by modeling how the costs of a babysitter change with decreasing pack size. This showed that packs of more than five adults should be able to feed all the pups and still spare a babysitter. But with smaller packs, either the hunting or the babysitting suffers, or the animals have to compensate by increasing he number of hunting excursions—which itself carries a cost to the pack.

    Field observations inZimbabwesupported the model. Packs of five animals or fewer left pups unguarded more frequently than larger packs did. There was also evidence that when they did leave a babysitter, they were forced to hunt more often.

    A pack which drops below a critical size becomes caught in a vicious circle, says Courchamp ², who is now atParis-SudUniversity. “Poor reproduction and low survival further reduces pack size, culminating in failure of the whole pack.” And deaths caused by human activity, says Courchamp, may be what reduces pack numbers to below the sustainable threshold. Mammal ecologist Chris Carbone atLondon’sInstituteofZoologyagrees. Maintaining the integrity of wild dog packs will be vital in preserving the species, he says.

词汇

carnivore /"ka: nivɔ:(r)/ n．食肉动物

pup /pʌp/ n．小狗

predator/"predətə(r)/n．捕食者

integrity /in"tegrəti/ n．完整

hyena /hai"inə/ n．鬣狗

prey /prei/ n．被捕食的动物

culminate /"kʌlmineit/ n．告终；达到顶点

Zimbabwe /zim"ba: bwei/ n．津巴布韦

注释：

1.A smaller hunting party is less able to tackle large prey and to defend the kill.：一个较小的捕猎群体不太容易捕捉大动物，也不太容易保卫猎获物。
2. A pack which drops below a critical size becomes caught in a vicious circle, says Courchamp：Courchamp说，“一个群体的规模降到警戒线以下时就会陷入恶性循环。”

The size of a pack must be big enough for it to survive.

A:Right B:Wrong C:Not mentioned

Spacing in Animals ¹ Flight Distance

    Any observant person has noticed that a wild animal will allow a man or other potential enemy to approach only up to a given distance before it flees. “Flight distance ²” is the terms used for this interspecies spacing. As a general rule, there is a positive relationship between the size of an animal and its flight distance ³—the larger the animal, the greater the distance it must keep between itself and the enemy. An antelope ⁴ will flee when the enemy is as much as five hundred yards away. The wall lizard ⁵’s flight distance, on the other hand is about six feet. Flight is the basic means of survival for mobile creatures.

    Critical Distance

    Critical distance apparently is present wherever and whenever there is a flight reaction. “Critical distance” includes the narrow zone separating flight distance from attack distance ⁶. A lion in a zoo will flee from an approaching man until it meets a barrier that it cannot overcome. If the man continues the approach, he soon penetrates the lion"s critical distance, at which point the cornered lion reverses direction ⁷ and begins slowly to stalk the man.

    Social Distance

    Social animals need to stay in touch with each other. Loss of contact with the group can be fatal for a variety of reasons including exposure to enemies. Social distance is not simply the distance at which an animal will lose contact with his group—that is, the distance at which it can no longer see, hear, or smell the group—it is rather a psychological distance, one at which the animal apparently begins to feel anxious when he exceeds its limits. We can think of it as a hidden band that contains the group ⁸.

    Social distance varies from species to species. It is quite short—apparently only a few yards—among some animals, and quite long among others.

    Social distance is not always rigidly fixed but is determined in part by the situation. When the young of apes and humans are mobile but not yet under control of the mother"s voice, social distance may be the length of her reach ⁹. This is readily observed among the baboons in a zoo. When the baby approaches a certain point, the mother reaches out to seize the end of its tail and pull it back to her. When added control is needed because of danger, social distance shrinks. To show this in man, one has only to watch a family with a number of small children holding hands as they cross a busy street.

词汇：

observant[əbˈzɜ:vənt] adj.观察力敏锐的;

barrier["bærɪə(r)] n.障碍物

potential[pəˈtenʃl] adj.潜在的

contact["kɒntækt] n.接触；联系

survival[səˈvaɪvl] n.逃生，幸免;

fatal["feɪtl] adj.致命的

mobile["məʊbaɪl] adj.可动的，活动的;

rigidly["rɪdʒɪdlɪ] adv.刻板的；死板的

approach[ə"prəʊtʃ] v朝……走近

baboon[bəˈbu:n] n.狒狒;

注释:

1.spacing in animals :动物的间隔距离

2．flight distance:逃离距离

3．．，．there is a positive relationship between the size of an animal and its flight distance.……动物体积与其逃离距离之间成正比关系。

4．antelope:羚羊

5．wall lizard:壁虎

6.“Critical distance"  includes the narrow zone separating flight distance from attack distance.关键距离指逃离距离和进攻距离之间的狭窄区域。

7．reverse direction:调转方向。

8．a hidden band that contains the group:-条控制群体的隐形带

Which of the following could best replace the word “band” in “We can think of it as a hidden band that contains the group” (in Paragraph 3)?

A:Strip of land B:Distance C:Society D:Community

The Only Way Is Up

    Think of a modem city and the first image that come to mind is the skyline. It is full of great buildings, pointing like fingers to heaven. It is true that some cities don"t permit buildings to go above a certain height. But these are cities concerned with the past. The first thing any city does when it wants to tell the world that it has arrived is to build skyscrapers.

    When people gather together in cities, they create a demand for land. Since cities are places where money is made, that demand can be met. And the best way to make money out of city land is to put as many people as possible in a space that covers the smallest amount of ground. That means building upwards.

    The technology existed to do this as early as the 19th century. But the height of buildings was limited by one important factor. They had to be small enough for people on the top floors to climb stairs. People could not be expected to climb a mountain at the end of their journey to work, or home.

    Elisha Otis, a USinventor, was the man who brought us the lift-or elevator, as he preferred to call it. However, most of the technology is very old. Lifts work using the same pulley system the Egyptians used to create the Pyramids. What Otis did was attach the system to a steam engine and develop the elevator brake, which stops the lift falling if the cords that hold it up are broken. It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention ¹. In fact, he spent a number of years exhibiting lifts at fairgrounds, giving people the chance to try them out before selling the idea to architects and builders.

    A lift would not be a very good theme park attraction now. Going in a lift is such an everyday thing that it would just be boring. Yet psychologists and others who study human behavior find lifts fascinating. The reason is simple. Scientists have always studied animals in zoos. The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts ².

    "It breaks all the usual conventions about the bubble of personal space ³ we carry around with us -- and you just can"t choose to move away," says workplace psychologist, Gary Fitzgibbon. Being trapped in this setting can create different types of tensions, he says. Some people are scared of them. Others use them as an opportunity to get close to the boss. Some stand close to the door. Others hide in the comers. Most people try and shrink into the background. But some behave in a way that makes others notice them. There are a few people who just stand in a comer taking notes.

    Don"t worry about them. They are probably from a university.

词汇:

skyline["skaɪlaɪn] n.空中轮廓线  

tension["tenʃ(ə)n] n.紧张

pulley ["pʊlɪ] n.滑轮

bubble["bʌbl] n.幻想,妄想;

fairground [ˈfeəgraʊnd] n.露天市场

注释：

1．It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention.正是这项技术赢得了人们对新发明的信心。本句使用了强调句型It is... that...被强调的是this，所指代的是上文中所说的Otis发明了电梯刹车的事。

2．The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts.对于研究人类来说，最接近的方式就是在电梯里观察他们。句中的that指的是上一句中提到的科学家一直对动物园里的动物进行观察。

Which of the following best describes the experience of going in a lift now?

A:Fascinating B:Uninteresting C:Frightening D:Exciting

The Only Way Is Up

    Think of a modem city and the first image that come to mind is the skyline. It is full of great buildings, pointing like fingers to heaven. It is true that some cities don"t permit buildings to go above a certain height. But these are cities concerned with the past. The first thing any city does when it wants to tell the world that it has arrived is to build skyscrapers.

    When people gather together in cities, they create a demand for land. Since cities are places where money is made, that demand can be met. And the best way to make money out of city land is to put as many people as possible in a space that covers the smallest amount of ground. That means building upwards.

    The technology existed to do this as early as the 19th century. But the height of buildings was limited by one important factor. They had to be small enough for people on the top floors to climb stairs. People could not be expected to climb a mountain at the end of their journey to work, or home.

    Elisha Otis, a USinventor, was the man who brought us the lift-or elevator, as he preferred to call it. However, most of the technology is very old. Lifts work using the same pulley system the Egyptians used to create the Pyramids. What Otis did was attach the system to a steam engine and develop the elevator brake, which stops the lift falling if the cords that hold it up are broken. It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention ¹. In fact, he spent a number of years exhibiting lifts at fairgrounds, giving people the chance to try them out before selling the idea to architects and builders.

    A lift would not be a very good theme park attraction now. Going in a lift is such an everyday thing that it would just be boring. Yet psychologists and others who study human behavior find lifts fascinating. The reason is simple. Scientists have always studied animals in zoos. The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts ².

    "It breaks all the usual conventions about the bubble of personal space ³ we carry around with us -- and you just can"t choose to move away," says workplace psychologist, Gary Fitzgibbon. Being trapped in this setting can create different types of tensions, he says. Some people are scared of them. Others use them as an opportunity to get close to the boss. Some stand close to the door. Others hide in the comers. Most people try and shrink into the background. But some behave in a way that makes others notice them. There are a few people who just stand in a comer taking notes.

    Don"t worry about them. They are probably from a university.

词汇:

skyline["skaɪlaɪn] n.空中轮廓线  

tension["tenʃ(ə)n] n.紧张

pulley ["pʊlɪ] n.滑轮

bubble["bʌbl] n.幻想,妄想;

fairground [ˈfeəgraʊnd] n.露天市场

注释：

1．It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention.正是这项技术赢得了人们对新发明的信心。本句使用了强调句型It is... that...被强调的是this，所指代的是上文中所说的Otis发明了电梯刹车的事。

2．The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts.对于研究人类来说，最接近的方式就是在电梯里观察他们。句中的that指的是上一句中提到的科学家一直对动物园里的动物进行观察。

When Oti.s came up with the idea of a lift,____.

A:he sold it to the architects and builders immediately B:the Egyptians used it to build the Pyramids C:it was accepted favorably by the public D:most people had doubt about its safety

The Only Way Is Up

    Think of a modem city and the first image that come to mind is the skyline. It is full of great buildings, pointing like fingers to heaven. It is true that some cities don"t permit buildings to go above a certain height. But these are cities concerned with the past. The first thing any city does when it wants to tell the world that it has arrived is to build skyscrapers.

    When people gather together in cities, they create a demand for land. Since cities are places where money is made, that demand can be met. And the best way to make money out of city land is to put as many people as possible in a space that covers the smallest amount of ground. That means building upwards.

    The technology existed to do this as early as the 19th century. But the height of buildings was limited by one important factor. They had to be small enough for people on the top floors to climb stairs. People could not be expected to climb a mountain at the end of their journey to work, or home.

    Elisha Otis, a USinventor, was the man who brought us the lift-or elevator, as he preferred to call it. However, most of the technology is very old. Lifts work using the same pulley system the Egyptians used to create the Pyramids. What Otis did was attach the system to a steam engine and develop the elevator brake, which stops the lift falling if the cords that hold it up are broken. It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention ¹. In fact, he spent a number of years exhibiting lifts at fairgrounds, giving people the chance to try them out before selling the idea to architects and builders.

    A lift would not be a very good theme park attraction now. Going in a lift is such an everyday thing that it would just be boring. Yet psychologists and others who study human behavior find lifts fascinating. The reason is simple. Scientists have always studied animals in zoos. The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts ².

    "It breaks all the usual conventions about the bubble of personal space ³ we carry around with us -- and you just can"t choose to move away," says workplace psychologist, Gary Fitzgibbon. Being trapped in this setting can create different types of tensions, he says. Some people are scared of them. Others use them as an opportunity to get close to the boss. Some stand close to the door. Others hide in the comers. Most people try and shrink into the background. But some behave in a way that makes others notice them. There are a few people who just stand in a comer taking notes.

    Don"t worry about them. They are probably from a university.

词汇:

skyline["skaɪlaɪn] n.空中轮廓线  

tension["tenʃ(ə)n] n.紧张

pulley ["pʊlɪ] n.滑轮

bubble["bʌbl] n.幻想,妄想;

fairground [ˈfeəgraʊnd] n.露天市场

注释：

1．It was this that did the most to gain public confidence in the new invention.正是这项技术赢得了人们对新发明的信心。本句使用了强调句型It is... that...被强调的是this，所指代的是上文中所说的Otis发明了电梯刹车的事。

2．The nearest they can get to that with humans is in observing them in lifts.对于研究人类来说，最接近的方式就是在电梯里观察他们。句中的that指的是上一句中提到的科学家一直对动物园里的动物进行观察。

Which of the following best describes the experience of going in a lift now?

A:Fascinating B:Uninteresting C:Frightening D:Exciting

Brands

    The word brand is a comprehensive term that encompasses other narrower terms. A brand is a name, term, symbol, and/or special design that is intended to identify the goods or services of one seller or group of sellers. A brand differentiates ¹ one seller’s products from those of competitors. A brand name consists of words, letters, and/or numbers that can be vocalized. A brand mark is the part of the brand that appears in the form of ² a symbol, design, or distinctive coloring or lettering. It is recognized by sight but may not be expressed when a person pronounces the brand name.

    A trademark is a brand that is given legal protection because, under the law, it has been appropriated by one seller ³. Thus trademark is essentially a legal term. All trademarks are brands and thus include the words, letters, or numbers that can be pronounced. They may also include a pictorial design ⁴. Some people erroneously believe ⁵that the trademark is only the pictorial part of the brand.

    One major method of classifying brands is on the basis of who owns them—producers or middlemen. Sunbeam, Florsheim, Spalding (athletic products), and Sara Lee are producers’ brands, while Allstate, Shurfine, Sysco, Craftsman, and Penncrest are middlemen"s brands.

    The terms national and private have been used to describe producer and middleman brand ownership, respectively. However, marketing people prefer the producer middleman terminology. To say that the brand of poultry feed marketed in three states by a small Birmingham,Alabama, manufacturer is a national brand, whereas the brands of Penney’s or Sears are private brands, stretches the meaning of the terms ⁶ national and private.

词汇：

encompass /in"kʌmpəs/ vt．包含，包括；围绕

differentiate /difə"renʃieit/vt．&vi．区分，区别

distinctive /dis"tiŋktiv/ adj．区别性的；有特色的，与众不同的

vocalize /"vəukəlaiz/ vt．&vi．说，清楚地发音；唱，练唱

letter/"letə/vt．用印刷字母写；vi．写印刷体字

trademark /"treidma:k/ n．商标

middleman /"midlmæn/ n．经纪人，中间商，中间人

terminology /"tə: minɔlədʒi/ n．术语，专门名词

注释：

1.    differentiate ... from...：把……与……区别开来。又如，differentiate tangible assets from intangible ones：区分有形资产和无形资产。differentiate后也可用between。如differentiate between right and wrong：分清是非。

2.    appears in the form of…：以……形式出现

3.    ... under the law, it has been appropriated by one seller．依据法律，它已被卖者占有了。appropriate是“私占，挪用”的意思。又如：He appropriated public funds for his own private use．他将公款挪为己用。

4.    They may also include a pictorial design．商标上也可能有图案设计。

5.    Some people erroneously believe...：有些人错误地认为……

6.    ... stretches the meaning of the terms…：……把这些术语的意思引申了……

Penncrest is a national brand.

A:Right B:Wrong C:Not mentioned